Anti-government protests marking the first anniversary of the Shi'ite-led uprising in Bahrain are expected to escalate.
Activists are determined to return to the site where demonstrations were centred last year before being brutally crushed.
On Monday, security forces in Manama fired tear gas and stun grenades at protesters trying to occupy the area dubbed last year as 'Pearl Roundabout'. They continued to disperse groups into the morning.
Despite a heavy police presence around the site and warnings of zero-tolerance of anti-government activities, thousands of opposition supporters marched through the streets of Manama and called for further demonstrations to follow.
"We will not back down," protester Nader Abdulimam said, taking refuge in a house just outside Manama with other activists overcome by tear gas.
"This has gone on for one year and it will go for another year or more."
More than 50 police vehicles filled 'Freedom Square', open ground in the suburb of Miqsha, where several government-sanctioned opposition gatherings took place last week, while riot police and security personnel took up positions around the island to prevent a mass uprising.
Around 70% of Bahrainis are from the Shia sect but the tiny Gulf island off the coast of Saudi Arabia has been ruled by the Sunni al-Khalifa family since the late 18th century.
Inspired by the revolutions in other Arab states, pro-democracy demonstrators had camped in the area for a month last year before the site was razed by the government, with Saudi troops providing extra muscle.
At least 40 people were killed, and many people, including doctors who had treated injured demonstrators, lost their jobs and were arrested.
The kingdom's rulers have since reinstated hundreds of workers dismissed for protesting and ending military-run tribunals, a move welcomed by Amnesty International.
Unlike in other 'Arab Spring' states, it also set up an independent commission to investigate allegations of the abuse of detainees and has implemented changes suggested, gaining the approval of many British politicians.
Although they have promised reform, they have refused demands from protesters and the main Shia party Al-Wefaq to end the monarchy's ability to select the government and set key policies.
US State Department spokeswoman Victoria Nuland expressed concern about the most recent violence./ She urged demonstrators to stage peaceful protests and security forces to "exercise restraint and operate within the rule of law and international judicial standards".
The US Navy's 5th Fleet is based on the island.


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